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* Practical System 

OF 

iiiiiEill 

ForWorking Drawings. 

"D. Van U03TRAUt> Co., Pubushsrs. 



REINHARDT. 



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ClassT3^ 
Book__Lj^ %(a 

Copyright N° 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



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LETTERING 

FOR 

Draftsmen, Engineers and Students 



A PRACTICAL SYSTEM 
OF FREEHAND LETTERING FOR WORKING DRAWINGS. 



BY 

OHAS. W. REINHARDT, 

CHiEr Dkaptsman, Enointieeing News. 



EIGHTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. 

TWELFTH THOUSAND. 



New York : 
D. VAN NO STRAND COMPANY, 

1903. 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 


Two Copies 


Received 


MAY 1 


1903 


Copyright 

6)(A. 11. 


£.ntry 


CLASS CL. 


XXo, No. 


^^±11 1 


COPY 


.?• 1 




■51 1 



Copyright, 1895, 1897, 1902. 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY. 



*■ c etc. 



PRE F ^ C E . 

In looking over the books on lettering, whicli have come under the writer's notice, he has found, that while 
doing full justice to the principle of ornamentation and the theories governing the shaping of each letter, no author 
has as yet attempted to treat lettering from a purely practical point of view. The need of a practical work on lettering, 
however, has been and is daily experienced by many draftsmen, and in the following pages the writer has endeavored to 
set forth the proper methods of forming purely free-hand lettering in a simple, easily acquired way, giving, at the same 
time, the proper safeguards against the errors most commonly committed. The letters exhibited are actual free-hand 
work and can readily be copied. In this respect the writer has made a radical departure from works of a similar charac- 
ter which generally give ornate, carefully engraved alphabets, being of httle more use to the average draftsman than 
ordinaiy printed type, i. e., they can only be copied with a great sacrifice of time and patience. The whole system out- 
lined is the result of the writer's experience during years of practice on the staff of a leading technical journal and is in- 
tended to be a thoroughly practical guide for doing the best class of work in the shortest possible time. 

Beooklyn, September. 1895. 

CHAS. W. KEINHAEDT. 



PEEFACE TO EIGHTH EDITIOT^T. 

Tlie encouraging reception given to former editions of this book has convinced the writer of the practical use- 
fulness of the system of lettering which he advocates, and has induced him to add material which tends to enlarge 
the scope of the book, making it complete in every respect. 

The subject of lettering, as applied to working drawings and the construction of titles, has been taken up 
more in detail, and the chapter devoted to lettering for purposes of photo-reproduction will be found interesting and 
useful by many readers. Besides the extension of the text some twelve illustrations and three full page plates 
have also been added, thus considerably enlarging the work, which, it is hoped, will continue to prove a desirable 
hand-book to those wishing to acquire the art of freehand lettering in a simple and rational way. 

C. W. E. 



INCLINED LETTERING. 



TN the following system of lettering no attempt has 
been made to imitate any special form of printed 
alphabet, and for all ornate and elaborate lettering the 
draftsman is referred to some one of the many published 
collections of this character. What is here intended is 
to illustrate and describe a type of lettering that looks 
well upon working drawings ; is reduced to its simplest 
form ; one that is rapidly made and is clear and distinct 
under almost any reduction by photography. It is, in 
fact, especially designed for photo-reproduction. With 
the purpose of fairly treating the subject, the lettering 
here illustrated has been reproduced without any attempt 
at touching up or cleaning ; it is actual freehand work, 
such as should be used in general practice. 

The ordinary slanting and, further on, the upright 
lettering are described in a somewhat detailed manner, 
as when the draftsman once becomes proficient in form- 



ing these two types properly, it will then be a very easy 
matter for him to form also the more ornamental letters 
satisfactory. The first requisite is to produce sharp, 
clean corners and bold lines of uniform strength, and 
this is especially necessary in work for photo-reproduc- 
tion, as usually such apparently unimportant things as 
filled -in corners and uneven lines are greatly exaggerated 
on the plate. In Fig. i the correct and incorrect ways 
of doinof this are shown. It will be well at first, for the 
purpose of obtaining clean corners, to resort to the 

artifice of slightly curving 
Incorrect ^ the lines outwards at their 

One Stroke Letterinq e'^^s- ^^ exhibited on the 

^o'-i'^'f- third line of Fig. i. For 

One Stroke Lettering very large letters the writer 

Fig. 1 finds a "ball-point" pen 

(Leonardt's 5i6 F.) most satisfactory ; for medium sized 



One Stroke Letterinq 



letters, not less than 2 millimeters high, he uses Soen- 
necken's No. loS or 208, and for small-sized letters, 
Gillott's No. 303, or Blanzy, Poure & Co.'s crow quill 
pen. All of these pens should be '^ broken-in " somewhat 
before being applied to lettering; they should also be 
frequently cleaned when using waterproof ink, especially 
the " Soennecken " pens. The nibs of the pen should, 
while doing this, be worked back and forth gently 
against a soft rag, which process will cause the 
dried-up particles of the ink to drop out from between 
them. 

As to the type of lettering to be employed, the 
slanting letter is well adapted to descriptive matter, 
dimensions, etc., while the upright letter will contrast 
well with the former type used as reference letters or 
sub-captions. A uniform pressure should be brought to 
bear upon the pen — a trick only acquired by practice. 
The pen should be held pointed forward, as in ordinary 
writing, and not sideways, as in " round writing." In 
lettering- on tracing linen a sheet of black cross-section 
paper divided to millimeters, such as given on detached 
plate (XII) accompanying this book, will be found useful 
for indicating the proper spacing, slant, etc. On drawing 






paper, pencil guiding-lines will be indispensable to the 
beginner. 

A slope of I to 2j4 is sufficient for the stems or 
down-strokes of the letters, and ordinarily an angle of 
45° with the horizontal will suffice for the up-strokes and 
the axes of ellipses, excepting that of the letter " o." 
The latter angle will have to be increased, of course, 
when the lettering is compressed, as shown in Fig. 2. 
In lower case letters, like "b" or "p," with parts extend- 
ing above or below the 
main body of the letter, 
the length of these parts 
should be about 2-5 the 
total height ; the body of 
the letter representing 3 
parts of the total height. 
The exception is the lower case " t," which is one 
part less in total height than "b" or " h," for 
example. In the illustrations following^ the incor- 
rect forms of letters, as being constantly observed 
by the writer, are shown in' brackets, and the 
correct method of forming each letter is shown 
beneath. 



^^ 



&!^dM^^ 4i=^ j I 



compre^^tf ^ 



Fig, 2. 



Lower Case Letters. 



afc 



^ 



^^ 



ill J . 



The letters " n " and " m," Fig. 3, should be made 

with almost sharp upper 

corners ; '• u ' is best 
formed by three strokes, 
as in this way parallel 
positions are secured for Fig. 3. 

the straight lines, which should be made first, and these 
can be then joined by a lower curve. In forming the 
letter " v," Fig. 4, make the first stroke nearly vertical, 

and the second at an ang-le of 
about 45° with the horizontal. 
The common error in makinsf 
this letter lies in curving the two 
lines and givingf the letter the 
The letter " w " is formed on the 



1/ (Yl W ^ ^ 



^^ 



Fig. 4 
appearance of a "y. 
same principle as the " v." In putting in the short hori 
zontal cross-line of the 
" t," Fiof. 5, o-reat care 
should be taken to use p.g 5_ 

very little pressure upon the pen, as otherwise the ink 



will spread at the intersection of the two lines and make 
clean corners impossible. The second part of the 
letter "r" should be purely an up-stroke, slightly 
curved at its end. In making the letter •• f " start with 
a curve extending down about one space ; the "f '' shown 
in brackets Avould come out with a heavy black knob 

at top in any considerable re- 



J ^sJ ^ ^ duction. The rule laid down 
Fig. 6. for forming the " n" may also 

be applied to the letter "h," Fig. 6, and the down-stroke 
for the " j " is practically the same as for the " f " revers- 
ed. Make bold, oblong dots over the "i " and "j." 

The third stroke of the letter " k,'' Fig, 7, should be 
vertical and begin at about the / / , ^ / . 
middle of the second stroke. In ~^ ^^''^ i K .1 -^' UJ 
constructing the letter " x," care Ficr. 7. 

should be taken to have the first stroke either verti- 
cal or leaning slightlv backwards, and the second stroke 
ought to cross the first a little above its centre ; in order 
to produce a clean intersection it may be well to make 



the latter stroke in two parts. The letter " y," 
Fig-. 8, should be drawn on the lines of the " v," and 

from the point of the angle 
the tail should be drawn 
p- g in exact line with the 

upper down-stroke, terminating, if desired, in a slight 
curve to the left, to avoid the little blot of ink which 
would otherwise form at the bottom of the stroke. 
In this letter the second stroke may be modified as 
shown. The ''z" is best drawn in one stroke, stop- 
ping the pen every time before changing direction. The 
letter " o," Fig. 9, is produced by two curved strokes, 
with their ends sufficiently bent, forming a perfect ellipse, 
the axis of which lies in the direction of the down-stroke. 
The joining of these two curves, in this and similar let- 
ters, can be effected very neatly after a little practice. 

The ovals of the following letters should be made 
somewhat narrower at the top than at the bottom, for 
obvious reasons ; and especial care must be taken to 
have the axis of these ovals lie at an angle of 46° with 
the horizontal. For the purpose of increasing the width 
of the enclosed space at the bottom of the down-stroke 
and the oval, the right-hand curve should be somewhat 




flatter than the opposite one. For the advantages of 
so doing see Fig. 9. In these letters the down-stroke 
should be at ex- 
actly the proper 
angle, rather in- 
creasine this 
angle at the be- Fig. 9. 

ginning, for the learner almost invariably makes the mis- 
take of drawing this stroke too slanting. To further guard 
against this error, the beginner may slightly curve the 
end of the down-stroke towards the left, thus widening 
the angle at the bottom of the " a " and " d," and the down- 
stroke of the " g " should be made as long as possible in its 
straight part by turning very short with the lower left- 
hand curve. The letters " p " and "b," Fig. ro, should 

be shaped exactly as in- 
d " and 
practice 



verted letters 
" q." With 
these letters can also 
Fig. 10. be made to look well by 

using the oval of the letter " o." 

The letter " c," Fig. 11, is formed with one stroke, 
care being taken to have its general direction parallel to 




^C''(c) ^(e)-§-$s (*s} 



Fig. 11. 



the down-stroke. The " e " is commenced in the same 
way, and the upper loop is formed by a second stroke 

with the axis of the loop 
again at an angle of 45°. 
The beginninof of the 
" s " is a very short curve 
from left to right at its 
apex ; the rest is carefully joined on, turned down into 
a neat ogee curve and finished by a little crook upwards. 
The middle part of this letter should be nearly horizontal. 
If a very narrow letter is to be produced, it may be 
constructed with one stroke and a flatter curve, making 
the upper curve somewhat shorter than the lower one. 
In the ordinary letter a first separate stroke at the top is 



made necessary by the fact, that while turning in a hori- 
zontal direction from right to left and then descending 
into the ogee curve, the pen will either clog up and not 
give the required strength of line at one stroke or other- 
wise will in turning detach minute particles of paper or 
tracing-cloth saturated with ink and deposit them at the 
side of the stroke, necessitating erasures. The method 
outlined (employing two strokes) is therefore by far the 
simplest and quickest way of producing a clean letter, as 
experience will show. It will at first be a somewhat 
difficult matter to the beginner to lay the main axis of 
this letter parallel with the down-stroke, but this is 
nevertheless an essential point and should not be lost 
sight of. 



Capital Letters. 



As in the rule laid down for the lower case letters, 
the capital letters will generally be five spaces high. 
Sharply defined clean corners are again necessary, and 
to secure this the beginner may find it advantageous to 
curve the upper and lower ends of the down-strokes a 
little outwards. 



The letter "A," Fig. 12, should be made in three 
strokes, with the second 



almost vertical. The cross- 
stroke should be placed low 
— about the middle of the Fig. 12. 

second space from the bottom. The short third 






stroke of the " E" should be sHghtly above the center 
of the letter, and should not be too short. The two 
down-strokes of the letter " H," Fig-. 13, should be ex- 
actly parallel, and the horizontal stroke should be made 
as directed for the third stroke of the " E." If the capi- 
tal " I " is to be followed by a lower case "1," two short 
horizontal strokes of even length and projection may be 

added to the top and 



bottom. The second 
stroke of the letter 
Fig. 13, "K" should join the 

first at the top of the second space from the bottom, and 

the third stroke should join the second nearly one space 

higher up. The letter " L" can easily be made with one 

stroke, analog^ous to the forminor of the same stroke of 

the letter " E." 

The "J," Fig. 14, is commenced as a perfectly 

straight down-stroke to the top of the lower space; then 

it turns to. the left in 

a gentle curve, tangent 

to the base line, and 

finally rises to the top pi„ 14 




ate strokes, putting in the two parallel lilies first ; the two 
other strokes should join at the top of the first space. If 
desired, this letter may be made slightly wider at the 
bottom than at the top. The letter " N " is also formed 
by drawing the two parallel strokes first. The horizon- 
tal stroke of the " T " should be neatly balanced on top 
of the down-stroke, and if it is not perfectly straight, as 
often is the case, a hardly noticeable crook downwards 

, , at both ends will 

improve it. 

The letters 

shown in Figf. 1 5 
Fig. 15. ^ ^ 

are to be con- 
structed precisely upon the lines laid down for the cor- 
responding lower case letters, with the exception that 
they should be a trifle narrower in proportion. The " Y" 
is formed with two strokes without any lower crook to 
the left ; the " Z" is made in one stroke, with the axis 
of the letter in 



the direction 
of the down- 
str ok e . If 




-^-' '^Hi^^a^—^H^^^^ 



of the first space. The " M " is made with four separ- found easier, this " Z " can be made with three strokes. 



10 



With practice the letters "P," "B" and "D"can each 
be formed with two strokes, with the curves terminating 
as shown. In forming the two curves of the letter " B," 
begin at the top. and after joining the stem, return exactly 
on the horizontal while the ink is yet moist and complete 
the lower curve. The space enclosed by the lower curve 
should be somewhat larger than that in the upper one. 
The curve of the ■' D " should be parallel with the down- 
stroke in its middle third, but it mav sometimes be ad- 
visable to make the lower part of the " D " a shade wider 
than the upper part. The first and second strokes of the 
" R " are identical Avith the letter " P." 

The "C," Fig. 17, is formed with one stroke, nearly 
completing the ellipse of the letter " O," though this let- 




ter should be proportionately narrower than the lower 
case " c." In making the '• G, " a somewhat wider ellipse 
is required, and this letter is most easily made with two 
strokes ; the second horizontal stroke should be about 

one-half of the 
total width of 
the ellipse. 
Fig. 17. The capital 

" O " should be an almost perfect ellipse, special care being 
taken in joining the two curves. The third stroke of the 
" O " should begin about the middle of the second space, 
and extend one space below the base. The letter " S " 
can be formed, for small-sized lettering, in two strokes, 
or with an additional stroke, as shown, for larger letters. 



Numerals. 



As a rule, numerals should occupy the same height 

as capital letters, 
or five spaces, 
though the use of 
Fig 18. fractions may 

slightly modify this rule. When the numeral "i," Fig. 18, 




is used in proximity with " I " or " 1," it is well to use a 
short up-stroke at the top ; othenvise, it may be repre- 
sented by a simple down-stroke. The '-4" is commenced 
with the stroke inclined at an angle of 45°, terminating 
at the second space from bottom and then turning sharply 
into the horizontal. The down-stroke should intersect 



11 





the horizontal in such manner as to leave about 3-5 of the 
horizontal to the left of the down-stroke. The " 7 " is best 
formed with one stroke, the down-stroke being on an 
angle of 45°. The " 3 '' should be drawn in one stroke, 
beginning as with the " 7 " to a point a little below the top 
of the third space, and then curving into a portion of an 
ellipse, with an axial angle of 45°. Another type of the 
numeral " 3 " is shown, 
which can be made in one 
stroke also. 

The "• o " Fig. 19, Fig. 19. 

ought to be a perfect ellipse, like the capital " O." The 
" 5 " is commenced with the down-stroke, ending in the 
ellipse of the " 3 " and the horizontal upper stroke. The 
" 2 " can be constructed by one stroke, beginning at the 
top of the fourth space, nearly completing an oval with 
an axial angle of 46°, and then turning shortly into a 
down-stroke running into the base line, where a sharp 

turn is made in a horizontal 

^^^ direction. The " 6," Fig. 20, 

'HQ^' A&''~ ''^0'^-' is commenced like the "o," 

Fig. 20. except that its initial point is 

somewhat beyond the axis of the ellipse. For that rea- 



son the first stroke is very short, curving to the right ; 
the second stroke descends nearly to the base, where a stop 
is made, and the pen then returns in the same stroke, 
and, gradually turning to the right, nearly completes an 
ellipse with an axial angle of 45°, joining its lower part 
with the bottom of the incomplete second stroke. The 
figure "8" is commenced with an ogee curve, using a 
slight crook at its lower end, and is finished by two other 
curves, as shown. The lower loop should always be 
somewhat larger than the upper one. The numeral " 9 " 
is made in two strokes. The ellipse at the top is nearly 
finished in one stroke when the down-stroke is assumed, 
which, beginning at the initial point of the ellipse and 
completing the latter, terminates with a somewhat fuller 
curve then that employed in lower case '' g-" 

Though Roman numerals are seldom employed 
on working drawings, they may sometimes be re- 
quired. The chief requisite is to so form them that 
they are neat in ap- -^ .^ ^^ -.^ ^„ -, 

pearance and easily I II III IV V Y( V//E . 



distinguished from the Fig. 21. 

rest of the text. They should be of the same height 

as the Arabic numerals, and short horizontal strokes 



12 




should be used with them, as indicated in Fig-. 21. 
In the modified forms shown in Fig. 22 it will be 
noticed that all the letters and numerals are based upon 
the general form of the letter •' o," modified to suit de- 
mands. The second stroke of the , 

"r" is really a part of the elemen- 
tary ellipse, as are also the second 
stroke of the " n " and the second 
and third strokes of the "m." The 
" u " is here made in two strokes — 
the first, a doAvn-stroke with the curve attached, and the 





Fig. 22. 



second a straiofht down-stroke, tang-ent to and touchinof 

o o o 

the curve. 

The numerals follow similar lines of construction. 
The '• 2 " begins at the upper part in an ellipse and ends 
in a down-stroke, laid at an angle of 46°, turning sharply 
to the right in a horizontal line. The " 3 '' is formed 
with one stroke, with its lower curve, as also that of the 
■' 5 " and '• 6," encircling somewhat more than half of the 
ellipse. In the '■ 6 " and •• 9 " care must be taken to have 
the curved down-strokes onh' tangent to the respective 
ellipses, and not cutting off a portion of the latter. 



UPRIGHT LETTERING. 



Upright lettering is employed most advantageously 
for reference letters, designatinof lines of section, and 
for captions. In some instances however, it may be 
deemed advisable to use uprights also for such descrip- 
tive matter, dimensions, etc., to which some prominence 



is to be given, though, as a rule, the slanting lettering 
will answer this purpose \&r\ well. 

The relative height of the letters ought to remain 
the same as that of the inclined lettering. The down- 
strokes should be perfectly vertical, and in order to pro- 



is 



duce this effect properly, it will be best for the beginner 
to form the habit of makinor the letters at first lean over 
somewhat to the left at the top, as the natural tendency 
would be to have them lean the opposite way. It will 
be noticed that in some of the uprights a comparatively 
greater number of strokes is required, as many portions of 



these letters are being executed in a horizontal direction 
or nearly so. The letters are again simplified as much 
as possible, a fact which will be especially notice- 
able in the lower case " a " and " g," which, though 
at variance with the ordinary gothic print, look fully 
as well. 



Lower Case Letters. 



In the letters shown in Fig. 23, the same number 
of strokes is employed as in the slanting lettering pre- 
viously described. The letters are as a rule made wider 
than those of the slanting type. The second stroke of 
the " n " and the two last strokes of the letter " m " are 
started with a very slight curve in an upward direction 
rounding off the corner at the top, making it somewhat 
more full than in the corresponding slanting letters. 

The letter "u" 

^^^^^^ is made in three 

strokes as usual, 



^ 



^ 



^ 



\/ \fv- 



Fi^. 23. connecting the 

two down-strokes with a well shaped curve. If preferred, 
however, the ordinary form of gothic lower case " u," as 



shown, may also be employed. In constructing the 
letter " v," the two slanting strokes ought to make the 
same angle with the vertical. The beginner will in- 
variably construct the second stroke at a greater incline 
than the first, and will do well to guard against this 
habit, until after some practice the hand will become 
accustomed to form the point of juncture of the two 
strokes equidistant from their starting point. The letter 
" w " is composed practically of two somewhat narrowed 
"vs. 

The letter "1" (Fig. 24) is sometimes constructed 
with a lower crook to the right, when used at the side of 
capital letter " I," otherwise it is made as a down-stroke 
pure and simple. The second stroke of the " r " starts 



14 



from the top of the second space upwards as a very 
sHght curve, similar to the one forming first part of the 
second stroke of letter " n." Letter "f " is best formed 
b}" three strokes ; the first a ver\" short cur^-e to the 
right, being joined by the second or main stroke. The 

horizontal third 



^^ 



(f')hlhli(l) j(j) stroke should be 

made sufficient- 
Fig- 24. 

1}- prominent. 

The letter " j " ought to extend two spaces below the 
base line and should be made in one stroke, being 
perfectly straight until the point of curve is reached. If 
found easier, however, a second right hand stroke, form- 
ing the curved portion, may be employed. The latter 
should be almost a semicircle and one space high. 

The second stroke 
of letter " k " (Fig. 2 5) 
should extend down to 
nearly the first space. 
The third stroke be- ^'g- 25- 

gins at about the centre of the second one. The letter 
" X " is constructed with two strokes, making the first 
one apparently more inclined than necessarv for reasons 




explained above. When the pen is very full^ the second 
stroke may be made in two parts, as shown, thereby 
preventing the forming of a clot of ink at the intersection 
of those two strokes. The upper part of letter " y " 
forms a perfect • v.' The second stroke may either be 
executed with a slisfht ansfle terminatino" in a vertical 
direction, or in a perfectly straight inclined line, according 
to the draftsman's individual taste. Letter "z" is as 
usual formed in one stroke : its starting point should 
be vertically above the point of turning into the horizontal. 
The ellipses of the letter shown in Fig. 26, are as 
usual constructed in two strokes, joining the respective 
initial and terminal , . 

points carefulh-. The D (O O) CHa O) d (,ci ) O^j^^j' 

first curve starts in an 1, - j: l/k?: = 
almost horizontal di- ~ 

rection towards the "^'S- 20. 

left and terminates similarly at the right, thus prevent- 
ing the forming of a point at the top and bottom 
junctures. The second (right hand) stroke of the ellipse 
ought to be made apparently more curved than necessary, 
as that portion is invariably made too flat by the beginner. 
The ellipses should be made quite full. The vertical 



» 



15 



down-strokes of letters " a," " d " and " g " ought to run 
tangent to their ellipses so that the thickness of the 
second curve at the joint of juncture is not increased. 
The curved portion or the fourth stroke of letter "g" 
extends to the left alniost or nearly the full width of the 
oval of this letter. 

The mode of construction of letters " q," " p " and " b " 
(Fig. 27) offers no novel features. If the pen, while 
rounding in the lower part 
of the curve of letters " p " 
and " b," should contain too 
much ink, the curA^e may be 
completed by a third stroke, 2' ^7- 

running in an opposite direction, as shown, as in turning 
into the lower portion of the curve a somewhat greater 
pressure is involuntarily brought upon the pen, resulting 
if too full, in a badly proportioned lower end. 



\ 1. z I -a I II i l P ', 1 ,•£ = 



Letters " c " and " s " (Fig. 28) are started with a short 
curve towards the right ; the upper end of letter " c " 
should be slightly more curved than the lower one ; still, 
the form of the perfect oval should be predominant in this 
letter. The letter "e" is constructed in three strokes. 
If, as is sometimes the case, the upper part of letters " c " 
and " e " should not precisely fill the allotted space, or 
otherwise they should appear too narrow, a slight flat- 
tening- of the lower 

portions of the curve, 

making those letters 

appear leaning back- Fig. 28 

ward; will help matters and otherwise not at all injure 

their appearance, as shown. The completed ovals of 

letter " s " should, as in the inclined one, form a perfect 

figure "8." If at all uneven, the lower oval should be 

made more prominent than the upper one. 



Capital Letters. 



Upright capitals are, as a rule, 5 spaces high, with the should be made narrower in proportion than the cor- 

exception of the " O," the appendix of which ought to responding lower case letters, 

reach one space below the base line. These letters The second stroke of letter "A" (Fig. 29), should 

16 




be made rather more inclined than the first one by 
the beginner. The first strokes of letters " E " and 
" F " must be made perfectly vertical or leaning back- 
wards, as even the slightest inclination forward in these 
two letters will be painfully noticeable, especially in the 
" F." The length of the short third stroke in the " F," 
is generally depending on the shape of the succeeding 

(lower case) letter ; 
shorter, if the latter 
beg-ins with a verti- 
Fig. 29. cal stroke, longer, 

if an oval or inclined stroke is to follow. We will not 
attempt, however, to lay down any definite rule on this 
point, as the determining factor in each case should be 
the draftsman's eye and good taste. Letter " Z " is 
best formed in one stroke, care being taken to make 
especially the inclined portion perfectly straight. 

The letters comprising Fig. 30 are constructed upon 
nearly the same 



principles given in 
the case of the cor- 
responding slanting Pl„ ,q 
capital letters. The termination of the last stroke of 




letter " K " should in a well formed letter be vertically 
below the initial point of the second stroke. The length of 
the horizontal portion of the " L" is again, as in the case 
of the " F," determined by the succeeding (lower case) 
letter. It is obvious, that by unduly lengthening that 
portion of the letter, an unproportionally wide space will 
result between its vertical jDart and the succeeding letter. 
The curved part of letter "J " (Fig. 31) ought to be a 
well shaped semicircle, beginning and ending not above 
the middle of the second space. The second and third 
strokes of letter " M " converge at the second line, and 
this point should, of course, be at an even distance from the 
vertical strokes. 



To attain this end 
exactly, some 
draftsmen will per- 



Fig. 31. 

haps find it easier to put in the two verticals first and the 
oblique strokes afterwards, as in the construction of the 
letter " N.' The angles in those two letters should be 
sharply defined, the strokes forming them ending in a 
clearly cut, though somewhat blunt point. The second 
horizontal stroke of letter " T " ought to be evenly 
balanced upon the main or down-stroke. 



17 




The construction of the letters shown in Fig. 32 is 
chiefly guided by the principle that the rate of inclina- 
tion of the slanting strokes should be uniform in each 

H/ y\r ^sr (^ ^ care should be taken 

Pig_ 32. that only the center 

lines of the inclined strokes join at the base or top 
lines of the ruling, thus avoiding two extremes, either 
the formation of a vertical short end or the reverse, a 
flattened out point. This is made apparent in the 
small illustration. Fig. 32a. The 
first and fourth strokes of letter 
" W " oueht theoretically to be made 
parallel to the second and third ; pj„ 32^ 

but as the latter two strokes are involuntarily made 
more upright than the first one, the fourth stroke should 
again be made more slanting to correspond with the first. 
The reverse mode of procedure would result in a badly 
shaped letter, as shown in brackets. Letter " X " is 
usually made in two strokes, or, if preferable, a stop may 
be made in the second stroke shortly before crossing the 
first, continuing it on the other side, avoiding thus the 





forming of a lump of ink at the point of intersection. 
The two inclined parts of letter " Y " should join on the 
top of the second space ; from there the second stroke 
is continued in a vertical direction down to the base line. 
Letter "P" (Fig. 33) is constructed in two strokes, 
the second one beginning at the top of the first, care- 
fully round- 
ing the curve 
and joining 
the first Fig. 33. 

stroke again at right angles as a perfectly straight 
line. The third stroke of letter "B" begins at the 
point of curve of the second, enclosing a slightly 
larger area than the second one. The second stroke 
of letter " D " should begin and terminate in a hori- 
zontal direction. If a slight " sagging " should happen 
in the curve, it ought to be near its lower portion. 
The rule given for the forming of the second stroke of 
letter " B " applies also to letter " R;" its third inclined 
stroke begins at the point of curve of the second. 
The two vertical strokes of letter " U " are made first ; 
a right hand carefully formed semi-circular curve con- 
nects the two. 



18 



Letter " C" (Fig. 34) is made with two strokes, and is 
simply a repetition of the lower case letter^ relatively 
narrower. The second stroke of letter "G" follows the 
outline of the 
ellipse up- 
wards near- 
ly a space ; 
there a short 




^:. ij_ay U -H 



Fig. 34 



stop is made and the pen point is carefully pushed up- 
wards in a vertical direction, terminating that stroke as 
shown. The final horizontal stroke should not be made 
too short. To those who might find it difficult to exe- 



cute the second stroke neatly in the way outlined the 
suggestion of a separate vertical downward stroke is 
made. The mode of construction of the ellipses of the 
"O" and "Q" differ somewhat from that of the lower 
case letters ; the point of juncture is shifted diagonally in 
order to lessen the chance of a point forming at the top 
and bottom of the oval. The third stroke of letter 
"Q" begins as shown, and extends one space below. 
The second stroke of letter " S " should for a very short 
space run perfectly horizontal. The rules given for the 
forming of the lower case letter otherwise apply to this 
letter also. 



Numerals. 



Upright numerals ought to be like the inclined ones, 
five spaces high. Figure " i " may again, if used in 
proximity with 
capital letter "F' 



or 



lower case 
be con- 




Fig. 35. 

structed with a very short upstroke. Numeral " 4 " is 
started with a perfectly straight inclined downstroke, as 



shown, whence it assumes a horizontal direction. The rule 
given above and illustrated by Fig. 32a on the forming of 
a clear cut angle, applies to the top part of this figure espec- 
ially. The lower terminal point of numeral "7" should, 
in a perfectly formed figure, be vertically below the center 
of the horizontal portion. The upper part of numeral "2" 
ought to form portion of a flattened oval. The mode of 
its construction is clearly shown in the illustration. Fig. 35. 



19 



ouoht to follow the vertical 



Numeral " 5 " (Fig. 36) begins with a vertical stroke 
to nearly the middle of the third space; from there 
the stroke follows the outline of the ellipse, which is to 
be three spaces high. The middle portion of the second 
stroke of numeral "6 
direction a short 
distance, as the 
general tendency 
in constructing this Fig. 36. 

figure is to have that part too much curved. The third 
stroke ought to enclose a perfect ellipse. Numeral " 8 "' 
is formed in three strokes ; its first a well-shaped ogee 
curve, with its middle portion running very nearly 
horizontal. The first stroke of numeral " 9 " ought to 




be part of a perfect ellipse and comprising as it does, 
nearly two-thirds of its circumference, is somewhat 
difficult to construct. The middle portion of the second 
stroke should for a short distance, run almost vertical. 
The upright =^ 



Roman num- — 
erals, Fig. 37, Fig. 37. 

are constructed, analogous to the inclined ones, with 
upper and lower short horizontal strokes. After explain- 
ing the mode of forming of capital letters " V " and " X," 
nothing new can be said concerning these, except that 
as a general rule it will be well to make them a trifle 
narrower in proportion. 



Extended Form of Upright Lettering. 



In the following illustration. Fig. 38, the upright letter- 
ing is shown in extended form. It will be noticed that 
for the construction of some of those letters a compara- 
tively greater number of strokes is required. The axes 
of the ellipses lie in a horizontal direction in every case, 
and it will be well to shape parts of the curves, composing 



them, decidedly flat, sometimes going to the extreme to 
have the top and bottom parts of the ellipses running 
perfectly straight for a certain distance. 

The complete alphabets of the slanting and upright 
type are shown in Plate I., together with samples of 
lettering- as used on working- drawings. The single 



20 



letter., composing a word, should, especially in slanting Sufficient space sl^ould be allotted betueen different 
lettenng, be placed as close as poss.ble, so close, in fact, words. Of all the theories set forth upon the spX 




Fig. 38. 



that they sometimes nearly touch each other. If this 
principle is followed out at first, the golden middle gov- 
erning the spacing of letters will soon prevail. The 
beginner generally spaces his letters too far apart. 



of lettering the writer has found that no one really 
'■ works " in practice ; therefore he would advise the 
draftsman to depend solely upon his eye in determining 
the proper space. The spacing of a word for instance"^ 



21 



should be so arranged that, when the drawing is held at 
some distance, or is looked at with half closed eyes, 

no unusually large Q^^y STANDARD. 

white space appears 

between letters, as '' .^^—^ 

shown for example ONLY STANDARD. 

in Fig. 39«, which, (Corrected.) 

an actual specimen Fig. 39. 

of printed type, demonstrates the fallacy of one of 



the theories upon spacing, and should appear corrected 
as in Fig. T,gd, showing, as it were, a more even tone 
of coloring. 

In expressing fractions, the accepted custom is to place 
a horizontal dash between numerator and denominator, 
excepting the instance when numeral " 4 " happen to be 
the latter, in which case, for obvious reasons, a slanting 
dash is employed. The several lines of lettering compos- 
ing a sentence, for instance, should be placed rather close. 



Freehand Lettering applied to Working Drawings. 

Lettering as applied to working drawings, should be side, and a dotted reference line with arrow head point- 



bold, clear and uniform in size, with 

the exception of the sub-captions, which 

may be a trifle larger. Diminutive and i,35/|>|., ,g;iy, ^ ^;j;| 

cramped lettering on a drawing will i|.- 



never look well. If possible, the letter- 
ing should be kept distinctly by itself and 
never be allowed to run across lines. 
If some words can not be put on the ob- 
ject itself which they are intended to des- 
cribe, they should be boldly placed out- 




Expansion Joints. 



,Cmtlmn, 2"thicH, U"lonq. 

' 'mmm 

3i'|-"&r/-^>'i?/yJ# 



|"->k-5'-'*4'-w|-i<-6"--:i4>i 
Roadway. 



Fig. 40. 



I/'/-., 



k-/5| -X--/?| ■■>K /?|-->i<-7£'#->i 

I I ..6ranolith/c ' 



•^T Jr "1::; IttI: jy-iS-ingj^ 




&/;?iT < 2i?i" -•>"« l%'-y< /^|--->i 

gyerf 5fr.l binniteBlxks \ 



mnmwmi 



JTrtal 



K?" I 



■pi^r -wmr^. 



Bituminous Concrefe 

Roadway. 

0' I' E' 3 



Fixed Ends. 



22 






Bott: C/iorH: 



ing- to the subject attached, as shown especially in Figs. 
40, 41 and 42. The lettering should be placed so as to 
read from the base 
and right hand side 
of the sheet, that 
is to sav, letterinof 
running at an angle 
of 90° to the base 
line should be made 
to read from the 
right hand side, if 
at a gfreater angle, 
its base should be 
reversed in such a 
way that it can be 
read from the lower 
left hand corner; if 
the angle be small- 
er, one should then 
be enabled to read 
it from the lower 
right hand corner, as Fig. 44 demonstrates. 

Dimensions should be placed between, not on top of 




HatmalfcrFsenHsn 



CarszSr-,-: - 

•> FT /•_ r 



i.abneChcni. 



" - - -,i,- ■•f-x-f-ir- 
■• - nilers, e,6i~jt§'/39' 
5till37Sr5,ee, 5><-/J-^-«94" 

■■ . ■^L'. ,. .... iS'fs- 
=.--=-'?, -Zf'VxZ'A' 



j^..-2»:-— V 



^ 



vy _ 

~^ ''-TcpofDn/m 



dimension lines, and an appropriate space left open 
while drawing those. If the space allotted for a dimen- 
sion is too small 
to place the same 
comfortably be- 
tween arrow heads, 
the figures should 
be written outside, 
parallel to dimen- 
sion line, and refer- 
ence line used. 
Arrow heads 
should be bold, 
with even sides, 
the two strokes 
composing them 
tapering in thick- 
ness from the point; 
" lop sided " ones 
should be avoided. 
The length of 
the arrow heads depends upon the size of the dimension 
numerals, which are to go between them ; at any rate, 






o V o 
^ o 



^ 



s 

■* 



L :k 



Cross Section, 



Details of Long Raising Girder 
and Truss Connection. 



41. 



23 




the numerals themselves should stand out free and not 
touch the former. Where the space does not permit 
this, the reversed arrow heads may be used, so as to 
leave a clear space between them, as shown, for instance, 
at left of Fig-. 40, in second row of dimensions from be- 
low. In the same figure the relative size of upright 



an Inset sheet in "Engineering News'' and yet shows 
the lettering of the strain-sheet legible, sharp and clean 
cut, even under a magnifying glass. The pin points, as 
shown, are also made prominent by using upright refer- 
ence letters. Similar prominence may be given, for in- 
stance, to portions of a building, as shown in Plate XI 



'l.?0'f 



,?0t 



,?0X;§ 






.20 » [ 



20ri 



,5pl.PI,20'x§' 













-Moles hrOussef 



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Wm: 



• Web. 








Wsl?. 






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H(B. 






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1.1 


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tt 






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l>i' 




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20'^^ 



-20 H" 



zo*, 



y /%f^J^'^''^d -A^'^l- ^ .■.4'ior:- ^;^,^ 



Part Side Elevation. 



' 5pl.PI,clo. 



I;/^ 



B Connection '2°'r,''^'^'^^\^^(wsyPI'totiearonBi!Hm 
K - 



Sectional Plan. 



122 'lOli "oyer all (Back * Bmir of End Stiff. Bj 



Fig. 42. 



lettering, as used for captions and sub-captions is shown. 
In Fig. 44 and on Plate III, upright lettering is also em- 
ployed to denote the strains for the respective members, 
in order to have same appear distinctly different from 
ordinary dimensions or descriptive matter. This plate 
has been considerably reduced in size from a drawing for 



on plan of station building. Notes referring to draw- 
ings should run parallel to base of sheet and be used as 
" fillers." 

In Fig. 43 and Plate II, lettering as used on sketch 
maps is shown. Here four distinctive styles, composed 
of the two alphabets above described, are employed. 



24 



The writer recommends, in such a case, to have the 
physical features of a map, such as creeks, rivers, lakes, 
mountains, bays, inlets, denoted by " all cap " slanting 
letters ; proposed engineering works in " caps and lower 
case " of the same type ; villages, railway lines, stations 
in " cap and lower 
case " upright let- 
tering ; finally, 
counties, townships 
or cities in " all 



caps, upri] 



^ht. 



These rules are 
all, of course, sub- 
ject to more or less 
modification, as oc- 
casionally contour 
lines, 



soundings. 



Profiles of railway lines, etc., may be treated in a sim- 
ilar manner ; the maro-in fio-ures denoting vertical and 
horizontal scales, should, however, be placed in uprights 
and be written outside, not upon the lines of the scale. 
The use of the four distinct types of lettering will at 

once alio w an easier 
reading of the pro- 
file. A good ex- 
ample of this kind 
is given in Fig. 45. 

The 
ment of 
fiofures here Avill 
permit the approx- 
imate elevation of 
any desired point 
^'S 43. easily to be ascer- 




3Mnes. 



arrangfe- 

o 

marcfin 



etc., may also be designated in small upright numerals. 
Plate II illustrates the above said very well. Letters 
relating to rivers and railway lines should be placed 
parallel to those objects. Otherwise, lettering in straight 
lines is resorted to. If this should, however, be imprac- 
ticable, lettering in neat curves is used. 



tained bj' laying a rule across the vertical scales, its 
upper edge touching the point in question. In Fig. 
46, the general style of lettering a diagram is shoAvn. 
The margin figures again are uprights, set opposite, not 
upon the lines, which they are to designate. The letter- 
ing of the curves, being of a descriptive character, is 



25 




done in the slanting type. Since this lettering has to run 
across the orclinates and abscissae of the diagram, great 
care has to be exercised to keep same open and clear, 
especially avoiding filled in corners. 

Examples of simple and also slightly more elaborate 
meridians and scales are given on Plate XI. All of the 
form.er are easy to construct and will look neat on any 



well finished map. The lower two scales are best 
adapted for map work, although the upper one, in- 
tended for ordinary working drawings, can also very 
well be used for that purpose. In constructing the 
simpler type of scales it is advisable to employ four 
different heights of graduation lines, a method which 
will materially increase its clearness. 



VARIOUS FREEHAND ALPHABETS. 



The principles of construction of the shaded inclined 
(Italic) lettering, shown on Plate IV, which is occasion- 
ally used on working drawings and maps, are practically 
the same as given for the ordinary (Gothic) slanting let- 
tering. The relative height of letters and inclination 
of down-stroke remain unchanged. A fairly fine point- 
ed rather flexible pen should be used, such as Gillott's 
No. 303 or No. 290 (Gillott's lithographic pen). The 
lower case letters are very much like common English 
shaded script. The shading is produced by an even 
pressure exerted upon the pen, wh'ch in turning into 
curves, is gradually released at the proper moment. In 
shading letters " S " and numerals " 2," " 7 " and " 8 " 



the pen has to outline and shade the curves at the same 
time, necessitating a slight turning motion of the holder, 
to the beginner a somewhat delicate operation at first. 
It will be noticed, that every second row in the upper 
portion of this plate is devoted to demonstrating the 
proper method of forming each letter and. the sequence 
of strokes. Italic lettering, in order to look well, re- 
quires a considerably wider spacing than the ordinary 
slanting lettering, the hair line upstrokes in most of the 
lower case letters adding;- to their width. After all that 
has been said about slanting lettering in general, no 
trouble will be experienced in constructing these letters 
satisfactorilv. 



2G 



When reduced considerably, Italic lettering, as a rule, 
does not show up so well as the same size of the slanting 
Gothic type described before, the light lines in that case 
dropping out, thus leaving only the shaded portions vis- 
ible. 

The type of lettering shown in lower part of Plate IV, 
is in fact only a modification of the ordinary upright 



shown on Plate V. As is known to every draftsman, a 
lump of ink is apt to form at the end of a straight stroke, 



.4^.. 




. Ac-.. -173,0001, gO0°"—---JK- - 686,0001 -«fl (7 " >-,- -- , , 

•y +7i3;ooor ^ +i96;ooo/-*'^'' -^ +202:000; 

'f-l',6'6-S2°/ t:!'3?.6' >^ 4LS.6"A-9 ^lt^ = 5g.g°" 

i!Xai'b2.8" . Total =31.6- 

K ZbO'O" 

,c 520' 0° 

Half Side EJevation . 
hig. 44. 

freehand lettering, and used as a part of tide looks very when the pen is fairly full. This propensity of the ink 

well when used with the black faced Gothic lettering, is made use of in constructing this type of lettering and 



27 



the flow of ink thus diverted. The relative number of 
strokes remains the same, as with the ordinary upright 
st3'le. A few modifications are introduced in the shape 



+aiOq ..Bulls Sary Road 




of which have been exhaustively explained in the fore- 
going, will experience no trouble whatever in sketching 
these letters in good shape. As shown, the relative 
height of lower case and capital letters 
remains unchanged ; the width of the 
stem of the capital may be taken as 4-5, 
in some cases 7-8, that of the lower 
case letters as 3-5 the width of a square. 



of lower case " a " and " g." This lettering is best pro- 
duced with a ball point pen, insuring a stroke of almost 
uniform strength. As a precaution, it may be said that 
the pen should 4iever be too full while making this type 
of lettering. 

Plates V to VII inclusive, contain Freehand Letter- 
ing suitable for main titles, which may easily be con- 
structed by dividing the space to be lettered into squares 
and sketching in the letters in outline afterwards, as 
shown ; on" tracing linen, cross-section paper may of 
course be used for this purpose. A draftsman able to 
satisfactorily construct the upright lettering, the principles 



On Plate V sug- 
gestions are 
made as to sev- 
eral methods of 
shading these 
letters, although, 
as a rule, they 
look very well 
without it. 
When this kind 
of lettering is de- 



i i 

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CJ CT>'C 

CO s: z 

Dollars. 

100 50 5 



80 40 4 



60 30 -i 



40 20 2 



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April 
May 
June 
July 
Auq, 



1879. 



1880. 1895. 

Metal Prices 1379,1880 and 1895. 



Fig. 46. 



,sired to be of medium or small size, it can neatly and 



28 



expeditiously be constructed in the way shown by Fig. 
4Ja : Throw in the stems of 
the letters with a broad nibbed 
pen, insuring a bold stroke 
analogous to ordinary Gothic 
upright lettering, with the ex- 
ception of the horizontal 
strokes, which, together with 
the tops and bottoms of the 
letters, rule in, and fill in the 
corners freehand, as shown en- 
larged in Fig. 473. As is well known, short freehand 
strokes are somewhat difficult to draw horizontally, 
therefore this method is certainly preferable to that of 



(Spurred dofhio.) ^/\/^^]^K 

(Plain Oothh.J \A/AYNJ F 
Fig. Ala 

WW 

Fig 476. 



turning the paper, so as to permit the draftsman to draw 
these strokes in a direction towards him. If, as the 
case may be, the draftsman should desire more ornamen- 
tal letters, he will be able, by the aid of his eye and the 
exercise of some originality, to devolve the letters de- 
sired out of the types given. It should, however, be 
borne in mind, that a tide, composed of highly orna- 
mented letters, does not atone for any poorly drawn and 
lettered sheet to which it may be attached, but on the 
other hand, a simple title, constructed of well executed 
letters of reasonable size, with the several lines compos- 
ing it, centered, will make an ample heading for any 
well executed drawing, and conform in style with the 
subject represented. 



LETTERING OF TITLES. 



On Plates VIII and IX, and the accompanying text 
figures, reduced specimens of freehand titles are given, 
and pains have been taken to present, as much as pos- 
sible, different types of easily formed and fairly well bal- 
anced titles, such as could be selected during the daily 



29 



routine work in the drafting ofifice of a technical journal. 
These samples, as given here, represent reductions from 
originals which range in size from one-hali^ to nearly 
one-fifth linear measure. 

The specimens exhibited on those two plates show 





more or less clearly, that the prominence which is to be 
given to different portions of a title, depends upon the 
relative importance of the lines. The draftsman is gener- 



...as:'L... 



By 



Bridge 720 3/^ /?un, 5\/ans\//7/e, yjn'zono. 
M. K. af7d T Ry. M/ddleD/v. 

3 Spans, S/nj/e Track, Through /7S-o'c.c.^/7dF/ns. 

Top C/-/ORDS /fNo End Posts. 



AMERICAN BRIDGE CO., 

EDGEMOOR PLANT. 

A. B. Ca Comr. no..jS.$.2. In Charge of.. J:?Z<^.?/?j_... 

Made by.uZ.^T. ■DBXe.S/XfA?.-Rev^..S/.4o. 

Checked Ty}.j£t./>.: Date j?/?.?/^*. Rev, _ 






V /nk Border 



CX/ 



Order No.A^23g._SHEET No.,,/2 



^^ Ci//S/ue Pr/TT^ of7-/M'j ///70^ 



^^u/7roc/r7Q 07T^/'s///7er 



Fig 48, 

ally given considerable latitude in regard to this matter. 

The title given under Fig. 48 is one of the standard 

arrangements of the concern named and shows good 

points. The lower part, as noticed, is stamped on the 



drawing, and the blanks are subsequentiy filled in by 
hand. 

A style of title seldom used nowadays is that shown 
in Fig. 49. The letters are arranged in curved 



-> 



lines and an ornamental, flourished effect is 
sought after. Where such is desirable, the gen- 
eral scheme is a fairly satisfactory one. 

A few words in regard to centerinsf of titles 
may here be added. A title should in nearly all 
cases, be arranged systemetically about a vertical 
center line. After the location of this line and 
the height and spacing of the different lines of 
letters have been determined, the spaces equal to 
the width of the letters can be marked off with 
pencil on the edge of a strip of paper and the 
center of the strip placed on the vertical center 
line of the title, with its edge just below the line 
of letters to be sketched. The letters can then be 
penciled in very readily. 
A space between words counts as a letter in spac- 
ing, therefore, a line containing three words of "] , 3 
and 6 letters represents 18 divisions, so that 9 divi- 
sions, or the first word, one space and one letter of the 



30 



second word are to come to the left of the center 
line, and the remainder of the line to the right. If, 
after all, the spacing of a line of letters needs re-ad- 
justment after the letters are sketched in, the drafts- 
man may easily rectify the matter by going over that 
line aofain, working first to the left and then to the rieht 
of center. 



shows the draftsman's lack of practice in freehand work. 




Genef? 



n- •? /Outlet ^^^^f^ 

U ra^Vl ty V<l3^t CakeCity 
g0i^ aUB I N DEX TO MAP 

IN — SHEETS ATTACHED 

Fig. 49. 

In Fig. 5o, an actual fac-simile of a title once met with 
is exhibited. It explains in short how not to do it, and 



while relying sole- 
ly upon his skill 
with bow pen and 



rulinc 



The 



's pen. 
writer would not 
consider this work 
complete without 
giving passing 
notice to 



NOoHQ 

END AN© ©ECTIONALi VEEM/ 

OF 

EUREKA DRIERS 



LONGITUDINAL SECTION 

Fig, 50. 



Round Writing, 

the principles of which are shown on Plate X. For the 
production of this kind of lettering regular round writ- 
ing pens are used, although very satisfactory lettering of 
this type can be produced with goose-quills cut by the 
draftsman, and the writer even yet prefers the latter. 



31 



LETTERING FOR PHOTO-REPRODUCTION. 



The lettering and drawing for reduction purposes may 
be made on any quality of drawing paper, tracing linen 
or paper. Yellowish tinted papers however, will as a 
rule, not give as good results as the pure white or blue- 
ish ones. In order to insure good, unbroken lines on 
tracing cloth the writer would recommend the thorough 
rubbing of the surface with pumice powder. The other 
materials mentioned, of course, require no special prepa- 
ration. Erasures on tracinor cloth are also best made 

o 

with the same agent ; the powder is sprinkled upon the 
part to be erased, and a little brisk rubbing with the end 
of the finger or a hard rubber, while replacing the dis- 
colored pumice with fresh powder, will thoroughly clean 
the effected surface, which may be lettered over again 
without danger of the ink spreading. Where, however, 
erasures have otherwise been made, Chinese white may 
be applied with a soft brush over the discolored parts. 
Letters and lines must be made perfectly black ; if very 
fine lines are used on a drawing, they will still reproduce 



at considerable reduction, provided each is formed by a 
solid ridge of ink. 

A good standard to adopt for lettering for reproduc- 
tion is to have the smaller lower case letters, such as 
" a," " e," etc., reduce to not less than one millimeter 
(slightly more than ^ in.) in height ; therefore, if a 
drawing is to be reduced three-fourths, (i. e., to one- 
fourth its original length) make those letters 4 times 

that height 
or 4 millime- 
ters (about 
ih in.) high 
with the 
strength of 
body in pro- 
portion ; the height of the capitals and numerals must be 
in accordance. A drawing to be reduced to one half 
size (one-half its length) has to contain lettering just 



• Freehand Lettering 



t— 



-(hd^.tr^- 



^ 



51a. 



ORIGINAL FOR THREE-FOURTHS REDUCTIONS. 



twice the standard given above. 



The lettering on draw- 



"32 



Freehand Lettering' 



Fig. 51&. 



■^ 



ings to be reduced to a size about halfways between 

three -fourths and two-thirds reduction, should be made 

2\ miUimeters (about ;nr in.) 
high, minimum size. All 
the foregfoingf is sufficiently 
made clear by the illustra- 
tions, Fig. 'Sia, b and c. 
The two illustrations shown on Plate XI (details ot 

rail-joint and section of reservoir) have been reproduced 

from oria inals five and 



CRIGISAL FOB EEPBODTTCTION BETWTEy 
ONE-HALF AN'D TWO-THIRDS. 



.T \«0 






o.'ri. CxvtU «AV 
tvT In* 



four times their re- 
spective sizes. Al- 
though the draftsman 
is supposed to know 
the exact rate of re- 
duction, the directions 
to the engfravers are 
better eiven in inches 
or fractions thereof, 
placed in pencil un- Fig. 52a. 

derneath ; they are for our puposes reproduced on Fig. 
5i« and b, but would, of course, not be reproduced by 
the engraver ordinarily. 




A drawing- should never be reduced at a lesser rate 

What may be 
^ , , , ^ . reduction is 

trteriana Lettanng- 



than to three-fifths of its orio-inal leno-th. 

o O 



Fig. 51c. 

EEPRODrnCS FROST 

EITHEB OF THE 

ABOVE OEIGIXALP. 



one-third its 
condensed 
on drawing's 



called a grood average 

the two-thirds (i. e., to 

length.) When the 

type of lettering is used 

for reduction purposes a proper safeguard to adopt is to 

exaggerate somewhat the width of ovals or small loops, 

such as for instance of the letter " e," to guard against 

the " filling- in '' of 

those parts. A close 

study of the three 

types of lettering 

given on Fig. i of 

this work,Avhich tend 

to illustrate the same 

principle, will also be 

useful. The reason 

for giving a limit of 

reduction (i. e., one 



Hate -.-the Top of Cap will 
be sUqhtiy oval, and thetxn- 
tral square, triangle, and 
■X circle will be raised about 
-^ J£abore ihe lettering. 




Section of 
Cast Iron Cap 



Fig. 526. 



millimeter height for smaller lower case letters) and the 
employment of gothic letters of uniform strength is 
made evident by referring to the illustrations. Fig. 5 2a, 



L. of C. 



which presents an example of engraving, such as is 
sometimes indulged in, and Fig. 52^, redrawn and 
reduced to some scale. 

The strength of the lines of a drawing to be repro- 
duced depends of course altogether upon the rate of re- 
duction. For larger reductions it will be quite essential 
to show as much of a white space between lines as possi- 
ble, for instance such as designates the thickness of flange 
of an I-beam in elevation. The work should in all cases 
be clear and open, and this detail, immaterial as it may- 
appear, not be overlooked. 

The processes of photo-reproduction ordinarily em- 



ployed are the photo- lithographic and zinc etching pro- 
cess. Both require a similar grade of preparation of the 
drawing. The writer uses on such drawing the water- 
proof ink, which is perhaps blacker than the ordinary 
kind and possesses more body, Any kind of black 
drawing ink^ however, is suitable for the purpose ; well 
rubbed stick India ink will permit of very fine black 
lines. The main objection to the use of ordinary inks, 
however, is their liability of blurring, when handled, 
or the ink mixing with the Chinese white, render- 
ing the application of the color sometimes very 
difficult. 



34 



abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.; I 23456789 10. I894-. 
ABCDEFOHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ. Ordinary Type. 
IIMN YVIW WKX. Details of Cross Framing. CROSS SECTION OF GIRDER. 
Extended Lettering. LONOITUDINAE SECTION. 8^. 

Compressed Type. INTEI^STATE BmCE. 5purWheelXDiarn.jrace,3pitch,'5ZTeeth,5.2Eev'5.3^lurnedPin^^^^^ 

a bcdefghij kl mnopq rstuvwxyz. 12345578910. 13^"-, -11"° %. 
ABODE FOH I J K LM N 0PQR5TU VWXYZ. IIMVVIYIIVIIIIXX. 
Ordinary Lettering. I Beam. Eye Bar. 4l?,6x5"x-|i"= 85.ie°" 2Webs,48"x2" 
EZxtendool . 95 P'-h. Spoim . Elnd N/ie-NA/. ^i"c:-. 

Compressed. I, IZ't^-lbs.peryd. NEW YORK CENTRAL. 2Y, 5'7|', i"°Bolt, Outer Elevation. & 



Material for Reenfprdng Boltom Chord' 
IReenfPL24x§"xdd"out5. above Chord. 
I '' - ,7Z"xX'^'0"nextfoWeb. 
I " ^^ ,7Z"xi"xe'9i" inside, „ 
Outs. Stjffenersd2EA"x5"4"x5'l0l 

" Fillers, e'8i'4">^2'll¥ 
Diaphragms (1/75.), J /^/f i "thick: 



Material for 1 Chord Section : 

8 



ZWebPlfZ4"i"x25'0" 



The Samples of Lettering on lower 
Portion m this Plate showapproximate 



I nil 



I - -, Id-2"xp25'0' 

1 icit.BracePI.,-57^'xb'0" 

2 '' " PFjlM'dM' 
4 Baiter PFjF'4'^2'r 
4L',4"x3i"xp25'0' 



-inii 



Spaa'ng of Lines and also flode of 
Crowding in Fracfion Numerals. 
It mil also be seen that It becomes 
necessary to occasionally shorten a 
Capital orlonqer Lower Case Letter 
Occasional Brackets or Horizontal 
Dashes are best made Free Hand-, 
the Ichter with a slow, "wobbling " 
Stroke of the Pen . 



PLATE I. 




PLATE II. 



a h c d e fghijklmnopqrstiLviuxyz 
A B CDEFGHIJKLMNOPaRSTUVWXYZ 

1 Q Q // PC ^ '^ Q Q '7/) 

Freehand .^ 5i#5f&"^,5''S'/ ' Printing 

Sii-uded Inclined (Italic) Lettering, Used for Working Drawings. 



a bcdefg hii klmnopqrstuvwxyz 
ABCDEFG HIJKLMNOPQ^STUVWXYZ 

123456789 10. 
Freehand Lettering for Captions, Produced very Fast. 

Through Passenger Service ; etc. 

PLATE IV. 




PLATE V 




PLATE VI. 




PUTE VII. 



DetaAs 



Suspervded Ca.v Trarvs^er 

5V\'\p Cana\ - Du\u"th,VA\T\n. 

C ■ A. . V.Tu.rner — ^nckVneer. 



A)opsiroit-us for the 
Aeration of Water. 



June I4-.1900. 



Scale 12;= I - 



William Whecl&r, 

Consulting, Ent,incer, 



NORTH GERMAN LLOYD, 

PLANS FOR 

PROPOSED PIER N? 3, 

C 90 FT WIDE. J 

HOBOKEN, N.J. 

OCT. 1900. 



liV./\iy.. ..Cii'// Engineer, 

Hoboken, NewJers^ 



Commonwealth of Massacinusetts. 

Metropolitan Water Works. 

Standard Details 

— -frf- OF ->*-•■' 

Lifters for Screens 

^ AND -^■^ 

Stop- planks. 

Full Size. 



JJPP/7/\J6EMENT Of 
IN6IDE 6H0P/A/0 

U.3.S. OPEGON. 



///=7<^y y>!7^a. ^='(~yG^7- sa^ 



<:>c.raQ£-& /s ^^O/, 



— TESTING STATION — 

OF THE 

— •=C0LUMB1AN flREPROOFlNG CO; 

BOSTON, MASS. 



PLATE VIII. 



COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS. 


ROUND CORNER DETAILS. 


METROPOLITAN WATER WORKS. 


SC/ILE '/s INCH=[FT. 


WACHUSETT DAM. 


These detaib forSE.CornerSimilar construch'on at N.£.corner. 


GENERAL PLAN OF DAM 


AND APPURTENANCES. 

40 60 '20 160 200 FT. 








O&nero/ E/eyoHon, Cross Sec-hons ^V'5/3//ces 


/^A/Va 7^yTA'S/r/?yf//./fOAD CoMM/SS/OjV 


Sco/e i"/i"=/y^. 


s^py^/?/y/fys/oyv 


Oh/eff/7S'^ssrs 0/77ce. 

Ch/cogo x-i^/Zor/h-yyesfBrn /x'y. 

(7h/coyo. Oec. 30^99. 




/9Z/<P//M£'//r o^ 2'-^" X J'&'^/P/C/r ^£'M^£'/? 


Approk'ecf ^S^ 




Consu//7n^^r?^y: Oraw/njTf- Z78/ 


■scat £■: '/z= / ' 


PITTSBURGH, PA. 






DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS 


New York Sc Brooklyn Bridqe 


BUREAU OF FILTRATION 


Present. Details of Bottom Connections-, 


CONTRACT NO. 1 


Suspenders Sc Stays. 


FILTERS, BASINS AND APPURTENANCES 


Scale ?<^in.to 1 -ft,. Sept-. 1901. 


INTERIOR DRAINS 
DETAIL PLAN OF ONE FILTER 



PLATE IX. 



(X/ yV Ay b ^ /I/ y^ X)i/ Xl A/ A/ ^ A/ A/Vi/A^ )c/ 



£/ 



6Uu^Jk/ 1692/. 



c5^ (9^/? of ^ctUoM^ of ^XUpiyC^ 
AAA/ )c^ Xvikkex/ Xie^ XKk^ -CXAV ^9iv\^^ 



PLATE X. 




■^v- vfc.-' Btll'iw" Conduit-^ 



Meridians. 



PLATE XL 



^ 



BOOKS FOR DRAUGHTSMEN. 



FOE SALE BY 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, Publishers, 

23 Murray and 27 "Warren Streets, New York. 



Andre, Geo. G. — The DraugMsman's Hand Book of Plan and Map 
Drawing ; incliiding Instructions for the preparation of Engineering, 
Architectural and Mechanical Dra-wings. 8vo, cloth 3.75 

Armensraiid, Aine et Jeiiiie, Aiiioroux and Johnson, W. — 

The Practical Draughtsman's Book of Industrial Design, and Machinists' 
and Engineers' Drawing Companion. Illustrated by fifty foUo steel 
plates, and fifty wood cuts. New edition. 4;to, half mor 6.00 

Barber, T. W. — The Engineers' Sketch Book of Mechanical Move- 
ments, Devices, Apphanoes, Contrivances, Details employed in the 
Design and Construction of Machinery for every purpose. Nearlv 
2,000 illustrations. 8vo, cloth ". 4.00 

Binns, Wni. — An Elementary Treatise on Orthographic Projection, 

with numerous illastrations. 8vo, cloth 3.50 

Second Course of Orthographic Projection ; being a continuation 

of the New Method of Teaching the Science of Mechanical Drawing. 

Svo, cloth 4.50 

Cryei", T. and Jordan, H. G. — Machine Construction and Mechanical 
Drawing ; including Spur and Bevel Gearing. For the Use of Students 
in Science and Technical Schools. Quarto, cloth 1.20 

Davidson, K. A. — Drawing for Machinists and Engineers. Compris- 
ing a complete course of Drawing adapted to the requirements of 
Millwrights and Engineers ; also, course of practical instruction in 
the coloring of Mechanical Drawings. 4th editiim, 16mo 1.50 

Donaldson, Jas. — Drawing and Kough Sketching for Marine 
Engineers, with Proportions, Instructions, Explanations and Examples, 
intended for the use of Seagoing Engineers and others in preparing 
Working Sketches and Rough Drawings; also, how to Design Engines, 
Boilers, Propellers, Paddle "Wheels, Shafts, Rods, Valves, etc. 4th 
edition. Illustrated. Cloth 2.40 

Dranglitsman, The Building- and Machine. — A practical 
guide to the projection and delineation of subjects met with in the 
practice of the Engineer, Machinist and Building Constructor, etc. 
12mo, cloth ' 2.00 

Engineer.s' and Machinists' Drawing Boole— A complete 
course of Instruction for the Practical Engineer. Illustrated by 
numerous engravings, 4to, half mor 10.00 



Fox, Wni. and Chas. "W. Thomas. — A Practical Course in Mechan- 
ical Drawing. Being a coTirse of progressive lessons illustrated with 
many diagrams and figures. Especially adapted to use of schools, col- 
leges, etc. Second edition revised. 12mo, cloth 1.25 

The object of this work is to provide a simple, practical course of 
progressive lessons in Mechanical Drawing. All instructions are given 
in connection with a special concrete exercise, instead of being pre- 
sented in an abstract and general manner. 
Hulnie, F. E.— Mathematical Drawing Instruments and How to Use 

Them. Fourth edition. 12mo, cloth 150 

Minifie, Win. — Mechanical Drawing. A Text-Book of Geometrical 
Drawing, for the use of Mechanics and Schools, in which the Defini- 
tions and Rules of Geometry are familiarly explained ; the Practical 
Problems are arranged from the most simple to the more complex, 
and in their descriptions technicalities are avoided as much as possible. 
With illustrations for Di-awing Plans, Sections and Elevations of 
Buildings and Machinery ; an Introduction to Isometrical Drawing, and 
an Essay on Linear Perspective and Shadows. Hlustrated by over 
200 diagrams, engraved on steel. With an Appendix on the Theory 

and AppUcation of Colors. Svo, cloth, !)th thousand 4.00 

Geometrical Drawing. Abridged from the octavo edition, for the 

use of Schools. Illustrated with 48 steel plates. Ninth edition, re- 
vised and enlarged. 12mo, cloth •. 2,00 

Ripper. Williani. — A Course of Instruction in Machine Drawdng 
and Design for Technical Schools and Engineer Students. With 52 

plates and numerous explanatory engravings. FoUo, cloth 6.00 

Kose, Joshua. - Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught. Comprising In- 
structions in the Selection and Preparation of Drawing Instruments, 
Elementary Instruction in Practical Mechanical Drawing, together 
with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary Mechanism, 
including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical Motions, Engines 

and Boilers. Illustrated, 8vo, cloth 4.00 

Stanley, W. F. — A Descriptive Treatise on Mathematical Drawing In' 
struments, their Construction, Uses, Qualities, Selection, Preservation 
and Suggestions for Improvements, with Hints upon Drawing and 

Coloring. Fifth edition. 12mo, cloth 2.00 

Unwin, W. <\— The Elements of Machine Design. Part I, General 
Principles, Fastenings and Transmissive Machinery. New edition, 

revised and enlarged. 12mo, cloth 2.25 

Part II. Chiefly on Engine Details. New edition. 12mo, cloth 2.00 



Here are a few BOOKS that may interest you. 



TEXT-BOOK ON PLAIN LETTERING. By H. S. Jacoby, 

Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, Cornell University. 

Cloth, oblong, 7x10 ins. ; 82 pp. text and 48 full page plates Price $3. 00 

Cbaptei-son tbe Construction of Letters, Spacing of Letters. Titles, Selection of Styles. IVIisceUaneous 
Aids ; together with 4S platrs illustrating Constniction of Letters, Spacin.;, Titles, Proportioning, Scales, 
Meridians, Bordei-s, V. S. Coast Sur\ ey Kiiles, Jlaiis and Titles, tJ. S. Geological Survey Standards and 
Maps: Mississippi Kiver Commission Title and JMaps, Corps of Engineers, Specimens of Type and Ex- 
planatory Notes. 

TABLES AND DIAGRAMS FOR ESTIMATING SEWER 

Work. By S. M. Swaab, C. E. 

Paper, oblong, 4.1 x7§ ins., 20 pp., 16 plates Price $ .50 

General explanation, method of using tables and diagrams, examples worked out, circular sewers, 
egg-shaped sewers, excavation for one and two ring brick circular sewers, excavation for circular sewers 
iu full and partial cradles, excavation for one and two ring brick egg-shape sewers, and for egg-shape 
sewers in fuU cradle, for sewers varying in diameter from 1 ft. 6 ins. to 15 ft. 

ENGINEERING CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS. 

By J. B. Johnson, M. I. C. E., M. Am. Soc. C. E., M. Am. Soc. M. E., Dean of 
ColIet,'e of Mechanics and Engineering, "University of Wisconsin. 

Cloth, 6x9 ins., 452 pp. with comislete index. New edition Price $3.00 

Including a brief synopsis of the law of contracts and illustrative examples of the general and tech- 
nical clauses of various kinds of engineering specifications, designed especially for the use of students, 
engineers and contractors. 

TABLES OF SQUARES ; Containing tlie true square of every foot 
and fraction thereof from to 100 feet, s.dvancing by one-sixteenth of an inch. By 
John L. Hall. 

Flexible morocco, 3J^x5^ ins., gilt edges Price $2.00 

This book has several advantages over other "Tables of Squares." It is accurate; it contains 
squares from to 100 feet : the page number agrees with the number of feet to be squared ; a separate 
column is devoted to each inch, broken by blanks into quarters, and the roots are set in heavy type, 
thus securing the utmost ease of reference and clearness, 

"TABLES OF LOGARITHMS AND SQUARES." Contain- 

ing parallel tables of logarithms and squares of feet, inches and fractions of inches, 
expressed in decimals of a foot and advancing by one thirty-second of an inch from 
to 50 feet. By Constantine Smoley. Flexible leather, 4j^ x 7 ins. ; 212 pp. $3. 00 



WINSLOW, BENJ. E. " Tables and Diagrams for Calculating 

the Strength of Beams and Columns." 

Cloth, oblong ; 12 x 9 ins.; 53 pp., including 19 fuUpage plates Price $2.00 

This book furnishes to Engineers, Architects and others interested in construction, a rapid and 
easy means of computing the sizes of beams and columns by the use of graphical tables. These tables 
have been in use for several years in making calculations for the erection of school and other important 
bviildings in Chicago. 

SPECIFICATIONS. The -price of each is from 5 to 40 cents. 

We publish some 30 different specifications, including those by G. Bouscaren, Theodore Cooper, B, 
A.. Cummings, Clark Dillenbeck, Chas. E. Fowler, E. Sherman Gould, Walter Katte, Osborn Company, 
Stowell & Cimniugham, Edwin Thacher, G. W. Thomson. We have specifications for viaducts and 
bridges of various kinds, steel roofs and buildings, structural steel, grading and masonry, cross-ties, 
1 rack-laying, dams and reservoirs, wiring for electric light in buildings, etc. 

STR,UCTURAL MECHANICS. By Chas. E. Greene, Professor of 
Civil Engineering, University of Michigan. 

Cloth 6x9 ins., 271pp., 100 iUustrative figures Price $3.00 

This is a valuable work on the strength and resistance of materials and the elements of structural 
design, with examples and problems. It is intended as a text-book for engineering students and a 
manual for the engineer. 

RAILWAY TRACK AND TRACK WORK. By E. E. RusseU 

Tratman, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E., Associate Editor "Engineering News." 
Revised and enlarged edition, containing additional chapters on " Signals and 
Interlocking," and " Street Railway Track. " 

Cloth, 6x9 ins., 471pp., 226 illustrations Price $3.00 

One of the leading railway journals says of this book : " It is the most complete collection of in- 
formation on railways, track and track material that has ever been made. The mass of facts as to the 
practice of the railways of the United States, and to some extent elsewhere is so great, and the draw- 
ings are so carefully made and complete, that the book stands entirely alone. 

TABLES OF LOGARITHMS OF LENGTHS UP TO 50 

Feet, varying by one-sixteenth of an inch. By Thos. W. Marshall. 

Flexible morocco, oblong, 5^x33^ inches $2.00 



Any standard Books oji Engineering and Allied Subjects may be Procured from our New York and Chicago Offices. 

A Complete List of our own Books or a Sample Copy of Engineering News will be mailed you on Application. 



The Engineering News Publishing Company, 



Chicago Branch : 
1636 Monadnock Block. 



Publication Office; 
220 Broadway, New York. 



ENGINEERING NEWS 



AND 



AMERICAN RAILWAY JOURNAL. 

Established 1874. Published every Thursday at 220 Broadway, Ifew Tort. Subscription $5 a year. 

If you are interested in any branch of Engineering you will find in 
" Engineering News " articles of special interest and value in your par- 
ticular line of work. You may also find much matter in which you 
are not so directly concerned. But a general knowledge of what is 
going on in all branches of engineering practice is most important 
to every ambitious engineer and draftsman, and the reading of 
" Engineering News " gives just this knowledge. 

We can refer to many drafting offices in each of which from 10 to 20 
copies of " Engineering News '' are subscribed for regularly. 



First Edition 



"While deprecating any need- 
lessly elaborate finish, the writer 
advises the use of just sufficient 
shading and finishing touches 
to render a drawing thoroughly 
comprehensible and to preclude 
any possible ambiguity. ' 

" The illustrations in this work, 
quite a number of which have 
appeared in the columns of 
'Engineering News,' are in- 
serted to demonstrate the points 
involved and have been reduced 
more or less in size so as to save 
space. They may however be 
copied by enlarging to about 3 or 
4 times their linear dimensions.'' 









A PRACTICAL GUIDE to Neat, 
Correct and Legible Draw^ing 

30 pp. 62 text illust.; 10 full page plates ; plates I. to IV. contain 
63 distinct conventions for Section Lining. Price, $1.00 postpaid. 



What a Draftsman says: 

"X find 'The Technie of Mechanical Drafting' a very 
valuable work, not only in the drawing, but also in text, 
and have found it to contain many valuable hints. I have 
it before me constantly tor reference and find all conven- 
tional signs to be the most simple and best possible to 
show up on a drawing whether reduced or enlarged 
prints are made. 

"I hare also a copy of Reinhardt's 'Lettering,' and 
find it to be a great and very valuable book. 
"Each is to me worth many times its cost." ($1 each.) 

B. LeG. REES 

City Engineer's Office, Elmira, N. Y, 




Mmm 



TESTIMONIALS 



Post- 



Price, II.OO pafd 



" It is of course to be under- 
stood, that this book is not a 
manual for beginners exactly ; 
it serves its purpose best, where 
used by the draftsman who is 
familiar with the mathematical 
principles of mechanical drafting. 
It will then, as the writer hopes, 
prove a valuable aid to the rapid 
production of neat, correct and 
legible drawings." 

(preface. ) 



"I have examined the book carefully and am much pleased with it. Mr. Rein- 
hardt is to be congratulated on having clearly, simply and briefly explained the 
methods he has used in making his drawings remarkable tor their great clearness 
and legibility. It is a book that should be on the desk of every draftsman." — 
Prof. C. B. Wing, Leland Stanford, Jr., University. 

"I find it most excellently adapted to the purpose for which it is intended."— 
Prof. Walter Flint, University of Maine. 

"Am greatly pleased with it; itoccupies a field of its own among books on draft- 
ing."— Prof. Robt. L. Lund, Vanderbilt University. 



"It should be in the library of every draftsman. "- 
State University. 



-Prof. C. W. Marx, Missouri 



-Prof. .John L. Mann, Thayer School of 



"It admirably fills a long-felt want. 
Civil Engineering. 

"It is certainly the best compendium of instruction and elegant examples that 
1 have seen."— Prof. Robert Fletcher, Ph.D., Director Thayer School of Civil Engi- 
neering. 



"It 
-Prof. 



will form a useful supplement to Mr. Reinhardt's 'System of Lettering.' 
E. H. Lockwood, Sheffield Scientific School. 



"Have adopted it as a reference book tor our civil engineering students. Your 
'Lettering' has been the means of bringing about a distinct lift in the standard of 
freehand lettering, and I predict a like result in the field covered by your new 
work." — Prof. W. D. Pence, Purdue University. 

"Reinhardt's 'Technie of Mechanical Drafting,' is a book that should be in the 
drafting department of every engineer's office. It describes those subtle details in 
execution which constitute the essentials of effective expression in a drawing, both 
as to truthfulness in its representation as well as its artistic finish. This state- 
ment is admirably illustrated by the contrasts shown in Figs. 6, 7, 22 and 46. In 
view of the important part of detail drawings in all kinds ot construction, it is an 
important service to show how the element of thorough legibility may be assured 
without necessarily increasing the cost of the drawing. My early experience ot six 
years in a drafting-room leads me to appreciate the importance of manyhints which 
might otherwise appear to be of little, it any, value. Each of the chapters on 
'Outline Shading,' and on "Section Lining,' are alone worth the price of the book." 
—Prof. Henry S. Jacoby, Cornell University, 



The Engineering News Publishing Co., 220 Broadway, New YorK 



rrrr 




PLATE XII. 
Cross Section, Millimeters. 



MAY 1 1903 




nBB^ABV OF^CON^^^^^^ 



019 934,552 7 




